ABSTRACT
Aim To investigate the reasons for disparity regarding the country-specific COVID-19-related case fatality rate (CFR) within the 30 countries of the European Economic Area (EEA). Materials and methods Data regarding population, area, COVID-19-associated infections/deaths, vaccination, life expectancy, elderly population, infant mortality, gender disparity, urbanization, gross domestic product (GDP), income per capita, health spending per capita, physicians, nursing personnel, hospital beds, ICU beds, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and smoking from all EEA countries were collected from official sources on January 16, 2022. Correlation coefficients were computed, and optimal scaling using ridge regression was used to reach the most parsimonious multivariate model assessing any potential independent correlation of public health parameters with COVID-19 CFR. Results COVID-19 CFR ranges from 0.1% (Iceland) to 4.0% (Bulgaria). All parameters but population density, GDP, total health spending (% of GDP), ICU beds, diabetes, and obesity were correlated with COVID-19 CFR. In the most parsimonious multivariate model, elderly population rate (P = 0.018), males/total ratio (P = 0.013), nurses/hospital beds (P = 0.001), physicians/hospital beds (P = 0.026), public health spending (P = 0.013), smoking rate (P = 0.013), and unvaccinated population rate (P = 0.00005) were demonstrated to present independent correlation with COVID-19 CFR. In detail, the COVID-19 CFR is estimated to increase by 1.24 times in countries with vaccination rate of <0.34, 1.11 times in countries with an elderly population rate of ≥0.20, 1.14 times in countries with male ratio values ≥0.493, 1.12 times in countries spending <2,000$ annually per capita for public health, 1.14 and 1.10 times in countries with <2.30 nurses and <0.88 physicians per hospital bed, respectively, and 1.12 in countries with smoking ratio ≥0.22, while holding all other independent variables of the model constant. Conclusion COVID-19 CFR varies substantially among EEA countries and is independently linked with low vaccination rates, increased elderly population rate, diminished public health spending per capita, insufficient physicians and nursing personnel per hospital bed, and prevalent smoking habits. Therefore, public health authorities are awaited to consider these parameters in prioritizing actions to manage the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
ABSTRACT
AIMS: COVID-19 is associated with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) and euglycaemic DKA (EDKA); however, evidence regarding parameters affecting outcome and mortality rates is scarce. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted using EMBASE, PubMed/Medline, and Google Scholar from January 2020 to 7 January 2021 to identify all studies describing clinical profile, outcome and mortality rates regarding DKA, HHS, DKA/HHS and EDKA cases in COVID-19 patients. The appropriate Joanna Briggs Institute tools were used for quality assessment; quality of evidence was approached using GRADE. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess correlations between clinical characteristics and outcome based on case reports. Combined mortality rates (CMR) were estimated from data reported in case report series, cross-sectional studies, and meta-analyses. The protocol was submitted to PROSPERO (ID: 229356/230737). RESULTS: From 312 identified publications, 44 were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. Critical COVID-19 necessitating ICU (P = 3 × 10-8), DKA/HHS presence (P = 0.021), and AKI (P = 0.037) were independently correlated with death. Increased COVID-19 severity (P = 0.003), elevated lactates (P < 0.001), augmented anion gap (P < 0.001), and AKI (P = 0.002) were associated with DKA/HHS. SGLT-2i were linked with EDKA (P = 0.004) and negatively associated with AKI (P = 0.023). CMR was 27.1% (95% CI 11.2-46.9%) with considerable heterogeneity (I 2 = 67%). CONCLUSION: Acute diabetes-related metabolic emergencies in COVID-19 patients lead to increased mortality; key determinants are critical COVID-19 illness, coexistence of DKA/HHS and AKI. Previous SGLT-2i treatment, though associated with EDKA, might preserve renal function in COVID-19 patients. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13340-021-00502-9.